The societal value of ensuring representation of different components of society in second chambers, particularly in multi-ethnic democracies, has been recognised. Arend Lijphart recommends a federalised system in multi-ethnic countries and notes that a second chamber that is not proportionate to the population of the sub-national authority works well when groups are geographically concentrated. However, where distinct groups are not geographically concentrated, it is evident that strict equality amongst the sub-national authorities will not produce a proportionate representation of those groups in the second chamber.