In September 2018, the European Commission made specific recommendations with the aim to protect Europe's democratic processes from manipulation by third countries or private interests, and proposed new rules on election cooperation networks, online transparency, protection against cybersecurity incidents and steps to counter disinformation campaigns in the context of the European elections. In December 2018, an Action Plan against disinformation was adopted which is aimed at building up capabilities and strengthening cooperation between member states and EU institutions to proactively address the threats posed by disinformation. Attention is also drawn to the March 2018 Opinion by the European Data Protection Supervisor on online manipulation and personal data, which recommends that data protection rules be completed and enforced, that regulators should aim for a collective diagnosis of the problem and cooperate across sectors, that self-regulation and codes of conduct be encouraged, and that individuals be empowered to exercise their rights including collective action.